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 DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE  Demonstratives are deictic words that indicate which entities a speaker refers to, and distinguishes those entities from others. Demonstratives are usually employed for spatial dexis (using the context of the physical surroundings), but in many languages they double as discourse deictics, referring not to concrete objects but to words, phrases and propositions mentioned in speech. Demonstrative Adjectives are used to demonstrate or indicate specific things. These are called demonstrative because they show something. They point out nouns. They always answer the question which one? "This", "that", "these" and "those" are all Demonstrative Adjectives. Demonstrative Adjectives come even before adjectives of number. In the following example, Demonstrative Adjectives are underlined. • Let's take this burger and later read that book. Demonstrative Adjectives are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are u...

 KINDS OF ADJECTIVES The main kinds of adjectives are :  ( a ) Demonstrative  ( b ) Qualitative ( c ) Quantitative  ( d ) Interrogative  ( e ) Possessive  ( f ) Descriptive

 Director School Education And Literacy Department UmerKot issued time Scale order for Primary School Teachers. Here is list.

 SOME SOLVED EXERCISES EXERCISE 1 Use the correct relative pronoun: 1. He is the man....... ran away with your purse. 2. The car ……. I bought a month ago is still out of order. 3. These are the children.... parents have died in the earthquake 4. Don't listen to......he says. 5. It is difficult to decide....we should give this prize to. 6. My mother didn't like the college…....I had chosen. ANSWERS 1. He is the man who ran away with your purse  2. The car which/that I bought a month ago is still out of order  3. These are the children whose parents have died in the earthquake  4. Don't listen to what he says  5. It is difficult to decide whom we should give this prize to. 6. My mother didn't like the college that I had chosen.

 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS  The Interrogative Pronouns introduce questions. It helps to ask about something. Often it has no antecedent because the antecedent is unknown. That is why the question is being asked. The interrogative pronouns are who, whom, which, what and the compounds formed with the suffix ever whoever, whomever, whichever, and whatever.  The Interrogative Pronouns also act as determiners: Example • It doesn't matter which book you read. • He doesn't know whose child he hurt.   In this determiner role, they are sometimes called interrogative adjectives. Moreover which or what can also be used as interrogative adjectives  Like the relative pronouns, the Interrogative Pronouns introduce noun clauses, and like the relative pronouns, the Interrogative Pronouns play a subject role in the clauses the introduce: • We know who is guilty of this theft. • I already told the lady what consequences she has to face.  The underlined word in each of the fo...

 RELATIVE PRONOUNS  A Relative Pronoun comes from Latin relativus means 'having reference or relation', or from relatus; past participle of referre means 'to refer'. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause, functions grammatically within the relative clause, and is co-referential to the word modified by the relative clause. Example The man who comes next. Relative Pronouns are conjunctions that connect two statements. They can also be called conjunctive pronouns e.g., which, who, that, whom, whose, etc. Moreover, the Relative Pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns. In doing so, they connect a dependent clause to an antecedent (i.e., a noun that precedes the pronoun.) Therefore, Relative Pronoun acts as the subject or object of the dependent clause. The Relative Pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns. In doing so, they connect a dependent clause to an anteced...

 RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS The word Reciprocal has been taken from Latin reciprocus meaning returning the same way, alternating.     A Reciprocal is a linguistic structure that marks a particular kind of relationship between two noun phrases. In a reciprocal construction, each of the participants occupies both the role of agent and patient with respect to each other. For example, the English sentence "John and Mary cut each other's hair", contains a reciprocal structure: John cuts Mary's hair, and Mary cuts John's.     A Reciprocal Pronoun refers to an antecedent in the plural, and expresses a mutual relationship. In other words, Reciprocal Pronouns are special pronouns that are used when the individual members that make up a plural subject noun take each other as their objects. Example • The astronauts congratulated one another after successfully completing the mission.  Here, the members of the subject, astronauts, take the other members of their own gro...

 DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS According to Webster's Dictionary Distributive means expressing separation; denoting a taking singly, not collectively; as, a distributive adjective or pronoun, such as each, either, every; a distributive numeral.      A Distributive Pronoun considers members of a group separately, rather than collectively. They include each, any, either, neither and others. Examples • Men take each other's measure when they react. (Ralph Waldo Emerson) • Each of them got a prize. • They got a prize each • They each got a prize. (Here each means each individual person.) • Everyone loves his country • Everyone of them supported the proposal. • Either of you has to come to the meeting. • Neither of them was present at the meeting. (Note that either and neither are always singular in form and take a singular verb.)

 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS  An Indefinite Pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. The Indefinite Pronouns do not substitute for specific nouns but function themselves as nouns. It conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.  The most common Indefinite Pronouns are: all, another, any, anybody, anyon, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody, and someone. Note that some Indefinite Pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives. One of the chief difficulties we have with the Indefinite Pronouns lies in the fact that people think that the words everybody refers to more than one person, but it takes a singular verb. • Everybody is accounted for. • Here, is you take the meaning of the word as ‘every single body ‘ , the confusion would disappear. The indefinite pronoun none can be either singular or plural, depending on its context. None is nearly always plural-meaning 'n...

 3. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS  Some words are both pronouns and adjectives . They are of two kinds : demonstrative pronouns and indefinite pronouns . These pronouns have only two forms - singular and plural . These are : this , that , these , those , such , one .  The family of demonstratives ( this / that / these / those / such ) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners . As pronouns , they identify or point to nouns : • That is amazing ! ( referring to something you just saw ) • I will never recall this . ( referring to a recent experience ) Such is my belief . ( referring to an explanation just made ) A sense of emotional distance or even disdain can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronouns :  You're going to hold these ?  This is the best you can do ? Pronouns used in this way would receive special stress in a spoken sentence . The demonstrative adjective pronouns are illustrated by the following pairs of sentences :  Examples • Is this your bo...

 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ( COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS ) The word reflexive has been taken from Latin reflexus . It means directed or turned back on itself . A Reflexive Pronoun reflects a noun or a pronoun by taking the place of its antecedent when the noun or the pronoun is doing something to itself . The Reflexive Pronouns are formed just like intensive pronouns by adding -self or -selves to the root pronoun . The Reflexive Pronouns indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb . Examples • We underestimated ourselves before the championship . • The child washed herself carefully with the soap and water . • People who cheat others also hurt themselves . • She encouraged herself to do well . asked • After the celebration , I asked myself why I had invited everyone in my neighbourhood .  This means that whenever there is a Reflexive Pronoun in a sentence there must be a person to whom that pronoun can reflect . In other words , the sentence :  Please h...

  The most common errors in using the case forms come from not distinguishing between the nominative and objective forms in two very common constructions: 1. Wrong use of the nominative form in predicate nouns: Who is there? It is I (we, he, she, they) [In conversation and informal writing, the objective forms, me, him, her, or them are permissible, but in formal writing the nominative forms must be used.] 2. Wrong use of the objective forms with prepositions: Few college students are so ignorant of English grammar that they would ever say (a) He hit I.  (b) The Dean invited we.  But too many make an equally bad blunder when they say: (a) Just between you and I, Fiaz is a complete bore. (between you and me)  (b) He gave the picture to Maria and I. (Maria and me)

 Case and the Personal Pronouns: The case of a pronoun is determined by the role of the pronoun plays in the sentence. This principle also applies to nouns, but since nouns have only the nominative and possessive forms, they create few problems.  The Nominative Case: The nominative case is used in these functions: 1. Subject of the sentence: I take long walks. 2. Predicate noun: If anyone calls, it will be I.' The Possessive Case: The possessive case is usually used correctly by native-born English speakers. The forms in parentheses in the above table (mine, yours, hers, ours, and theirs) never preceded a noun; they are used in predicate construction: This is my book. The book is mine.  * The nominative case is also used with words in apposition, direct address, and the usually understood you in the imperative mood, but these present few problems. The Objective Case: The objective case is the most difficult of the three cases, and a knowledge of the grammatical rules...

 1. THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS  The word personal has been taken from Latin personalis which means pertaining to a person. It can be described as done in person without the intervention of another or proceeding from a single person.   Personal pronouns have not only special forms for gender and number and person but also for case; for Latin casus. Casus means that which happens to fall, an accident, and from it comes also those other meanings for case; a case of hives, a mental case, a legal case, and that sadly overworked and useless case in such expressions as "in case he does not come.'  The Latin grammarians chose the term because they assumed that the other forms of a noun or a pronoun represented so many "feelings away" from the first or the nominative form.    Unlike the pronoun, an English noun has only two case forms in the singular and plural: the nominative and possessive cases. Thus a regular noun has these forms:           ...

Kinds Of Pronoun  There are eight kinds of Pronoun They are 1. The Personal Pronouns. 2. Reflexive Pronouns 3. Adjective Pronouns. 4. Indefinite Pronouns. 5. Distributive Pronouns. 6. Reciprocal Pronouns. 7. Relative Pronouns. 8. Interrogative Pronouns.

 USES OF PRONOUN  Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most frequently asked questions about English grammar. Which relative pronoun to use is determined by what the antecedent is and whether the dependent clause is essential information in relation to the independent clause. Who , Which , That . The correct use of these relative pronouns requires a knowledge of these distinctions : That is the man whom you gave the money to . Use of who:  Who is generally used for human beings but sometimes for pet animals also . • We had to take Tommie , who had been barking all night , inside .  Whom is also used for human beings and sometimes for pet animals .  Use of which:  Which is used for animals and for inanimate things . • The time which is lost is lost for ever .  • The dog which I bought yesterday is an Alsatian .  • Generally , we use which to introduce clauses that are parenthetica...

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 Uncountable Nouns: Uncountable nouns name objects that cannot be counted. These nouns do not form plurals. Nor do they take a, an, or many before them. Examples Water, honey, wheat, rice, sugar, iron Natural phenomena like heat, cold, light, darkness are also uncountable nouns. Names of ideas, states, qualities, actions as branches of knowledge are also uncountable nouns: Honesty, slavery, punishment, beauty, music, philosophy, geography.  Some uncountable nouns like water, advice can be used as countable nouns but in such cases their plural forms have different meanings. Examples  The waters of Pakistan (=The rivers of Pakistan)  Advices from our Tokyo office (=commercial information from our Tokyo office)

  COUNTABLE NOUNS Countable nouns name objects which can be counted. These nouns have their singular and plural forms. In this category come common nouns (like pencil, bird, tree, wall, etc.) and some collective nouns (like union, team, committee, etc.)  Examples • A pencil, two birds, fifty meters, a million stars, two unions, ten teams.. Examples • Water, honey, wheat, rice, sugar, iron  We cannot say a water, two sugars or many golds. We don't think of such nouns in terms of numbers but think of them in terms of quantity or mass. We measure them by using a unit, which can be counted  Other Examples  A glass of water  A pint of wine  A liter of oil  A bottle of milk  A cup of tea  Two spoonfuls of brandy  A dose of medicine  A cask of beer  A bag of rice  A kilogram of sugar

  USES OF NOUNS Noun as subject of the verb: • The boy came home. • Aslam read the book. • The government is considering this matter from various angles. (b) Noun as object of the verb: • Nadeem broke the window. (as direct object) • He earned some money. (as direct object) • I gave Naveed some money. (Naveed is the indirect object and some money direct object) (c) Noun as complement of the subject: • Maria is my sister. • She is a very good cook.  (d) Noun used for addressing someone: • Are you coming, Anila? • Gaffoor, come here. (e) Noun as complement of the verb: • He became captain of the team. • The general turned traitor to the country. • The nouns underlined are necessary to complete the meaning of the verb.  (f) Noun as object of the preposition: • The book is in the drawer. • Mother is in the kitchen. (g) Noun used to show possession: • George's girl friend has come. • Ali's dog is barking loudly. • A mother's love is unselfish. • Shake...

 5. CONCRETE NOUN  The word Concrete has been taken from Latin concretus, the past participle of concrescere means to grow together-from com- 'together'+ crescere 'to grow-naming a real thing or class of things. Noun sense of "building material made from cement, etc." The word poem is concrete, poetry is abstract. Example  The storm was a thing of beauty. The waves were tall and foaming as they rolled toward the shore. The wind bent the palm trees on the cliffs into graceful curves, and clouds raced across the gray expanse of sky.  Waves, palm trees, cliffs, clouds, and sky are all concrete nouns. The Concrete Nouns create a picture of the storm for the reader, showing the reader how the storm was beautiful.  A Concrete Noun is a noun that refers to what is viewed as a material entity including people and animals, physical items that we can perceive through our senses, that means Concrete Noun is a noun that names something you can see (like the sun), touch ...

 ABSTRACT NOUN The word Abstract comes from the Medieval Latin 'abstractus', or from Latin, past participle of 'abstrahere'-to drag away-from abs "away" + trahere "draw", to draw away meaning "withdrawn or separated from material objects or practical matters". It is thought of apart from concrete existence / realities, specific objects, or actual instances: an abstract idea. There are different types of nouns and all of the types follow the same grammar rules. When most people think of nouns, they think of people, places and things but Abstract Nouns are the opposite. It is a noun that denotes something viewed as a nonmaterial referent. It denotes an abstract or intangible concept, such as envy or joy. It is a noun that you can't see, hear, touch, smell or feel rather it is a feeling, idea, state, quality, action, etc.    An abstract noun denotes quality, state or action: • Quality – cleverness, honesty, softness, darkness, wisdom, be...

 3. COLLECTIVE NOUNS  A Collective Noun is a noun that refers to a group of entities that may be considered either as individuals or as one larger entity. In linguistics, a Collective Noun is a word used to define a group of objects, where "objects" can be people, animals, inanimate things, concepts, or other things. For example, in the phrase "a pride of lions", pride is a Collective Noun. A Collective Noun may agree grammatically with the verb either as a singular noun or as a plural noun, and take either a singular or plural pronoun.  Usage (a) In American usage, a Collective Noun takes a singular verb when it refers to the collection considered as a whole. Examples • The family was united on this decision. • The enemy is filing a suit for peace. (b) A Collective Noun takes a plural verb when it refers to the members of the group considered as individuals. Examples • My family are always fighting among themselves • The enemy were hiding in their individual...

 2. PROPER NOUNS The word proper' has been derived from the Latin word 'Propriu', which means 'Own; belonging to one; one's own; individual.  Example • "His proper good" [i. e., his own possessions]. (Chaucer)  • "My proper son". (Shakespeare) So Proper Noun is one's own name, not shared with any of its class. It is a proper name of anything. Proper Noun names a specific and unique person, place, thing or idea or anything peculiar or particular and is not common. Proper Noun is not normally preceded by an article or other limiting modifier, as any or some, and that is arbitrarily used to denote a particular person, place, or thing without regard to any descriptive meaning the word or phrase may have, as Wordsworth,Shakespeare, Greece, Oxford. It is also called 'proper name' and is usually capitalized in English. Example • "I've got something for the girls of Savannah, and all of America, and all the world, and we'r...

    7. CONJUNCTION  The word Conjunction comes from Latin conjunction, means 'a joining'. In grammatical sense, it is a translation of Greek word sundesmos that means 'binding together'.     A conjunction is a joiner; a word that connects (conjoins) words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Example  Ahmad and Arham are friends.  Here, the Conjunction 'and' connects two nouns.  He will drive or fly.  Here, the Conjunction "or' connects two verbs.  It is very early in the morning but we can go whatsoever  In this example the Conjunction 'but' connects two groups of words, go whatsoever.

 . COMMON NOUNS A noun that can be preceded by the definite article and refer to objects which are grouped together because of their shared characteristics. It may occur with limiting modifiers (as a or an, some, every, and my) and that designates any one of a class of beings or things. Common Nouns are general names. As common means shared by all, generally known or ordinary, so Common Noun refers to anything that is common to all. Thus, they are not capitalized unless they begin a sentence or are part of a title. Examples • "Often it does seem a pity that Noah and his party did not miss the boat." (Mark Twain) • "Canada is a country whose main exports are hockey players and cold fronts. Our main imports are baseball players and acid rain." (Pierre Trudeau) • "The reason grandparents and grandchildren get along so well is that they have a common enemy." (Sam Levenson). • The highlighted words in the above sentences are Common Nouns. They are common a...

 KINDS OF NOUNS A single noun can fall into more than one class. Here is an example: • Sarah has known five Ahmads in his life. • Ahmads-proper, concrete and count. • Nouns may be made plural, usually with the suffix -s or -es, as in books and rabbits. • Nouns show ownership with the addition of an apostrophe and, sometimes, an additional -s, as in a book's pages, fifty beys uniforms. • Nouns may be countable (1 table, 2 tables, 3 tables, etc.) or uncountable (salt, ail). • Nouns show ownership with the addition of an apostrophe and, sometimes, an additional -s, as in a book's pages, fifty beys uniforms.  Nouns may be countable (1 table, 2 tables, 3 tables, etc.) or uncountable (salt, ail).  Nouns may signify concreteness (TV. forehead) or abstractness (sorrow, negotiation).  There are different kinds of Nouns. • Common Nouns • Proper Nouns • Collective Nouns • Abstract Nouns • Concrete Nouns

 5. ADVERB       The word Adverb come form the Middle English adverbe and from Latin adverbium. An Adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An Adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much". Examples  Manner quickly-I do my work quickly. Place: there-We are going there to attend the funeral. tomorrow-I will visit him tomorrow.  Time: Many Adverbs end with the suffix "Iv'. Most of these are created by adding "ly" to the end of an adjective. Such as:  Adjective hard Adverb hardly Adjective hopeful Adverb hopefully Adjective aggressive Adverb aggressively  However, this is not a reliable way to find out whether a word is an adverb or not, for two reasons: Many Adverbs do not end in "-ly", and many words which are not Adverbs do end in "-ly" such as kindly, friendly, clderly and lonely, which ...

 8. INTERJECTION     The word Interjection literally means "thrown in between" and comes from the Latin word inter meaning 'between' and iacere meaning 'throw'.    An Interjection is a part of speech that usually has no grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker, although most Interjections have clear definitions. Filled pauses such as uh, er, um, are also considered Interjections. Interjections are generally uninflected function words and have sometimes been seen as sentence-words, since they can replace or be replaced by a whole sentence. Sometimes, however, Interjections combine with other words to form sentences, but not with finite verbs. Also, Interjections like "so" and "what" are rarely used in the sentences.     An Interjection is usually followed by an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations. Interjections a...

 6. PREPOSITION     The word Preposition comes from Latin praepositio, from praeponere means to 'to place before'- prae means 'before' + ponere means 'to put or place'. A Preposition may be described as connecting words showing the relation of a noun or a noun substitute to some other word in the sentence. Prepositions are used to express a number of relationships including time, direction, location, cause, manner, quantity, purpose, and state or condition.  Examples • He rushed to the bus.  In the above example, to is the Preposition which shows direction. • He came by bus.  Here, by is a Preposition which shows manner. • We will join you at 8 o'clock.  Here, at is a Preposition which shows time. • She placed the rostrum table on the stage.  In the above example, on is a Preposition which shows place. A Preposition always goes with a noun or a pronoun which is called the object of the Preposition. The Preposition is almost always before the...

 4. VERB     The word Verb comes from Latin verbum . A Verb is a part of speech that expresses existence , action or occurrence of a subject or an object . In other words , it is used to tell what a subject or an object does or is . The Verb is the heart of a sentence and is a vital part of the predicate of a sentence . In various languages , it is inflected for agreement with the subject , for tense , for voice , for mood , or for aspect . Examples  .A snake bites his victims on the head .  I go to the university in the morning .  In the above two sentences the Verbs ' bites ' and go ' show what action a person or a thing takes  My father is a genius .  Here the Verb ' is ' shows what a person is .  The Car has a broken window pane .  Here the Verb ' has ' shows what has been done to a thing         The grammatical forms of the Verbs include number, person and tense. Unlike most of the other parts of speech, Verbs change their form. Sometim...

 3. ADJECTIVE The word Adjective comes from Late Latin adiectivus means to add to . It is a part of speech that modifies a noun , a pronoun or other substantive by describing , qualifying , quantifying or specifying words . Thus , it is called a modifier .  Moreover , it gives more information about what the Noun or Pronoun refers to . It is distinguished in English morphologically by one of several suffixes , such as -able , -ous , -er , and -est , or syntactically by position directly preceding a noun , a nominal phrase or a pronoun .  Examples *He is a timid baby . *I have a red pencil . *Most monkeys are arboreal creatures *I saw six sheep grazing in the meadow . *Mrs. Aslam papered her kitchen walls with lovely wall paper . In the above sentences , the italicized words are Adjectives .

 2. PRONOUN The word Pronoun comes from the Late Middle English ( pronoune ) , partial translation of Latin pronomen : Whereas pro means name and nomen means Noun . A Pronoun can replace a Noun or another Pronoun . Moreover , a Pronoun is the part of speech that is used as a substitute for an antecedent noun that is clearly understood , and with which it agrees in person , number , and gender  For example , consider the sentence " Arham gave the coat to Asma . " All three nouns in the sentence can be substituted by pronouns to give : " He gave it to her . If the coat , Arham , and Asma have been previously mentioned , the listener can infer what the pronouns he , it and her refer to and therefore understand the meaning of the sentence . In addition , you can use pronouns like he , which , none , and you to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive . I , n , you , he , she , it , they , them , ours , me , who , which , myself , anybody , etc. are pronouns

 1. NOUN    The word Noun comes from the Latin nomen meaning ' name ' . A word used as the designation or appellation of a creature or a thing , existing in fact or in thought ; a substantive .        Noun is the part of speech that is used to name a person , a place , a thing , a quality , an action or an abstract idea such as feeling or quality and can function as the subject or the object of a verb , the object of a preposition , or an appositive . Thus , Nouns designate all those objects we can see , smell , touch , hear or taste and those also that we can think of but cannot perceive by any of our five senses .       Child designates a person ; therefore , child is a noun . Similarly , democracy designates an idea ; therefore , democracy is a Noun . Moreover , Nouns can be identified by presence of signal words